Causal inference for group-contaminated structured outcomes: observable quotients, lossless reduction and exact randomization inference
群变换污染下结构化结果的因果推断:可观测商空间、无损约化与精确随机化检验
Structured potential outcomes such as microscopy images may be recorded after an unknown, unit-specific transformation. If that transformation can depend on treatment, covariates or the intrinsic outcome, raw-coordinate analyses may mix biological effects with acquisition geometry. We study the unrestricted observation model X = Γ . Y(A) and characterize its observable information: a target is uniformly recoverable exactly when it is constant on group orbits, while a Borel…