Generalised Covariances and Correlations
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The covariance of two random variables measures the average joint deviations from their respective means. We generalise this well-known measure by replacing the means with other statistical functionals such as quantiles, expectiles, or thresholds. Deviations from these functionals are defined via generalised errors, typically induced through identification or moment functions. As a normalised measure of dependence, a generalised correlation is constructed. Replacing the common Cauchy--Schwarz normalisation by a novel Fréchet--Hoeffding normalisation, we obtain attainability of the entire interval $[-1, 1]$ for any given marginal distributions. We uncover favourable properties of these new dependence measures and establish consistent estimators. The families of quantile and threshold correlations make it possible to measure local dependence and give rise to function-valued distributional correlations, exhibiting the entire dependence structure. Quantile correlations also lead to tail correlations, new measures of tail dependence, closely related to and refining classical coefficients of tail dependence. Finally, we construct summary covariances (correlations), a class of regional or global dependence measures, which arise as (normalised) weighted averages of distributional covariances. We retrieve covariance, Pearson and Spearman correlation as special cases. The usefulness of our new dependence measures is illustrated on demographic data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics.